Table 1 The 3E nexus found for various countries, 2010–2018
Authors | Variables | Region | Period | Methodology | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pao and Tsai [50] | CO2, EC, GDP | BRIC countries | 1971–2005 | VECM; VAR | - Bidirectional strong Granger causality between EC and CO2 output - Bidirectional mild long-run relationship between EC and GDP - Causality running from EC to GDP in the short-run - Strong negative causality running from CO2 output to GDP |
Wang et al. [10] | CO2, EC, GDP | 28 Provinces in the People’s Republic of China | 1995–2007 | Panel cointegration; panel VECM | - Bidirectional causality between CO2 and EC, also between EC and GDP - EC and economic growth are the long-run causes for CO2 emissions - CO2 emissions and economic growth are the long-run causes for EC |
Wang et al. [51] | GDP, EC, CO2 | People’s Republic of China | 1978–2012 | Linear and nonlinear causality | - Linear and nonlinear unidirectional causality from CO2 emissions to GDP - Linear and nonlinear bidirectional causality between EC and CO2 emissions - Unidirectional linear causality from EC to GDP - Nonlinear unidirectional causality from GDP to EC |
Magazzino [52] | GDP, EC, CO2 | South Caucasus and Turkey | 1992–2013 | Panel VAR | - CO2 has a negative effect on energy use - Real GDP has no effect on energy use - Energy use has no effect on real GDP |
Chen et al. [8] | CO2, EC, GDP | 188 countries | 1993–2010 | Panel cointegration; VECM | - Long-run relationships between GDP, EC, and CO2 for all countries - EC negatively affects GDP in the world as a whole and developing countries, but not in developed countries - Unidirectional causality from EC to CO2 exists both on developing and developed countries |
Magazzino [53] | GDP, EC, CO2 | 19 APEC countries | 1960–2013 | Panel VAR | - No long-run relationship between GDP, EC and CO2 - No causal relationship between real GDP and energy use - Causal relationship exist between GDP and energy in 9 countries |
Mirza and Kanwal [54] | GDP, EC, CO2 | Pakistan | 1971–2009 | ARDL; VECM | - Short-run, long-run, and strong Granger causality results indicate bidirectional causalities among EC, GDP, and CO2 emissions |
Doğan [15] | CO2, FD, EC, GDP | E7 countries | 1990–2014 | Panel cointegration | - No long-term relationship between CO2 emissions and FD - Positive effect of EC on CO2 emissions - Positive effect of economic growth on CO2 emissions in long-term |
Pao and Chen [21] | CO2 EC, GDP | G20 | 1991–2016 | Panel cointegration | - Long-run equilibrium relationship among CO2 emissions, consumption of fossil fuels, GDP, and clean energy consumption |