Table 8 Results for Granger causality test based on ARDL model

Brazil

LGDP

– –

2.405635^*/[0.0800] (+)

3.767159^**/[0.0177] (–)

LEC

8.200355^***/[0.0005] (+)

– –

8.665529^***/[0.0004] (–)

LCO₂

8.047049^***/[0.0017] (–)

9.973761^***/[0.0005] (+)

– –

India

LGDP

– –

10.01860^***/[0.0002] (+)

2.494419^*/[0.0842] (–)

LEC

38.67256^***/[0.0000] (+)

– –

59.24849^***/[0.0000] (+)

LCO₂

3.277671^**/[0.0338] (+)

4.296970^**/[0.0126] (–)

– –

Indonesia

LGDP

– –

2.728564^*/[0.0827] (–)

0.485877/[0.6202] (no)

LEC

2.471449^*/[0.0768] (–)

– –

1.661532/[0.2009] (no)

LCO₂

3.369837^**/[0.0303] (+)

2.825815^*/[0.0769] (+)

– –

Mexico

LGDP

– –

2.641577^*/[0.0607] (+)

6.732778^***/[0.0012] (–)

LEC

29.22243^***/[0.0000] (+)

– –

4.472803^***/[0.0090] (+)

LCO₂

4.520791^***/[0.0084] (–)

5.014765^***/[0.0053] (–)

– –

People’s Republic of China

LGDP

– –

5.734735^**/[0.0227] (–)

10.60359^***/[0.0027] (+)

LEC

0.109901/[0.9534] (no)

– –

7.015114^***/[0.0016] (+)

LCO₂

6.805757^***/[0.0019] (–)

4.463740^**/[0.0130] (+)

– –

Russia

LGDP

– –

0.575145/[0.5843] (no)

0.828062/[0.4711] (no)

LEC

0.091798/[0.7671] (no)

– –

30.43173^***/[0.0000] (+)

LCO₂

6.120302^**/[0.0293] (–)

26.29907^***/[0.0000] (+)

– –

Turkey

LGDP

– –

1.556601/[0.2136] (no)

1.348327/[0.2815] (no)

LEC

12.47108^***/[0.0001] (+)

– –

12.64742^***/[0.0001] (+)

LCO₂

30.21155^***/[0.0000] (+)

9.017897^***/[0.0001] (+)

– –