The Governance of Energy Transition: Lessons from the Nigerian Electricity Sector

The rising need for energy transition towards more sustainable energy sources requires a rethink in the governance of energy systems. Arguably, policy makers have very important roles in governing transitions in any given society through established institutional frameworks. It has also been argued that energy infrastructure choices are determined by institutional dynamics and structures. However, what are the inuences underlying changes in energy systems and what lessons can we draw from them for the governance of energy transition? This study focuses on understanding the dynamics of energy transition governance within the Nigerian electricity sector with the aim of drawing lessons that impact on energy transition and energy systems change. Using explorative research tools, this research explores the dynamics of energy transition governance within the Nigerian electricity sector with the aim of drawing lessons that impact on energy transition and energy systems change. Data from primary and secondary sources in documentary archives and other published sources that links to the Nigerian historical energy infrastructure provisions were used for analysis in order to draw lessons on energy transition dynamics in Nigeria.


Abstract Background
The rising need for energy transition towards more sustainable energy sources requires a rethink in the governance of energy systems. Arguably, policy makers have very important roles in governing transitions in any given society through established institutional frameworks. It has also been argued that energy infrastructure choices are determined by institutional dynamics and structures. However, what are the in uences underlying changes in energy systems and what lessons can we draw from them for the governance of energy transition? This study focuses on understanding the dynamics of energy transition governance within the Nigerian electricity sector with the aim of drawing lessons that impact on energy transition and energy systems change.

Methods
Using explorative research tools, this research explores the dynamics of energy transition governance within the Nigerian electricity sector with the aim of drawing lessons that impact on energy transition and energy systems change. Data from primary and secondary sources in documentary archives and other published sources that links to the Nigerian historical energy infrastructure provisions were used for analysis in order to draw lessons on energy transition dynamics in Nigeria.

Results
The study revealed that there were three important factors that had a direct impact on energy transition and energy systems change within Nigeria's electricity sector. These are: (1) Changing perceptions and goals (during the period leading up to Nigeria's independence, 1890 -1960s); (2) Direct government interventions in energy infrastructure provisions (1940s -1970s); and (3) Major changes in market rules (from 2005 and beyond).

Conclusions
The study concludes by highlighting that: (1) there is a need for government institutions to tackle energy access issues that addresses the needs of the poor; (2) it is imperative to explore technological options that are more sustainable; and (3) there is a need to address energy consumption patterns that are more energy intensive. Indeed, available energy resources, technological changes in electricity supply systems, and the 'geographies of energy' are major factors that in uence energy production and consumption dynamics. All of these needs to be considered as energy decisions are primarily political choices.

Background
Energy systems can be very complex, entangled with multiple interconnected issues that require both urgent and simultaneous solutions that may lead to unprecedented energy transition [1]. These changes necessitating a transition in energy use also has serious consequences for energy governance [2]. Providing modern energy access, improving security of energy supplies and reducing energy systems effect on climate are three important global energy challenges with implications on national and global energy governance [1]. Energy governance is aimed at addressing some of these challenges. However, the complexity of energy challenges requires the involvement of various actors and stakeholders in proffering solutions that addresses the diverse aspects of these challenges [3,4]. Indeed, addressing these challenges requires a polycentric energy governance system as most energy related challenges cannot be easily addressed within a single agency or regime [5,6].
Transitioning away from our current fossil intensive energy system is a necessity [7]. The current state of use of available fossil based resources is simply unsustainable due to increasing economic, social and environmental criteria. The current techno-institutional complex discriminates against other technologies and favour fossil fuels [8]. The future of energy is of great concern to both policy makers and end-users alike [9]. It is a central challenge confronting governments, industry players, end users and other stakeholders [10]. Understanding the motives and drivers of energy transitions is of utmost importance in effecting energy systems change. However, how is energy transition occurring? What lessons can we draw from energy transition dynamics in the global south, within developing country contexts? This paper explores the energy governance dynamics within the Nigerian electricity sector while drawing out lessons on some of the impacts of the various governance dynamics.
In Sect. 2, some background is presented that contextualizes the study. Section 3 presents some brief methodological considerations. In Sect. 4, the main ndings detailing the important features of Nigeria's electricity system and their impact on energy transition are presented. The concluding thoughts are presented in Sect. 5.

Research Context
Energy transition is driven more by the quest to reduce environmental harm caused by continuous burning of fossil fuels [11][12][13]. A major consequence of this are the efforts directed towards limiting Co 2 emissions [14]. Rojey argues that improving energy e ciency, increasing the share of low-carbon energy sources in our energy mix, and introducing Carbon Capture and Storage facilities can help reduce Co 2 emissions in a considerable way [15]. Rojey further argues that ensuring technological progress to support new technologies that limit Co 2 emissions, de ning new energy governance rules that go beyond legislation, and the introduction of new lifestyle that are less energy intensive are examples of actions that are required for a successful energy transition.
It is important to understand energy transition from a geographical and political perspective [16][17][18]. Rocher and Verdeil, in examining the socio-technical collectives involved in the Tunisian energy transition argues that there are four major elements that can be used as a basis to analyze the role of distributed agencies. These elements, which are crucial in understanding the dynamics at play on-the-ground, can help in providing useful guidance on effecting energy transition to low carbon energy sources. They include [16]: The actors involved in energy issues, including those involved in proffering solutions to energy challenges at local, regional and national levels.
The (shared or unique) visions of the various actors and the goals that they pursue or the interests they defend.
The current available technologies in the energy production and consumption systems.
The conditions and policy instruments under which the current technologies at play are rolled out.
Indeed, at the heart of all the ongoing changes in energy systems are the drivers of electricity demand and supply. It is argued that there are some major drivers of electricity demand and supply necessitating changes in energy systems [19]. These include: i. Prices: End user energy prices and fuel cost play a vital role in energy systems change. It is generally believed that the higher the energy price, the lower the consumption due to energy e ciency measures, energy savings and/or switch to other cheaper alternative energy sources. Arguably, the life cycle cost of renewables is much cheaper than fossil based energy source due to additional fuel cost [20,21].
ii. Economic factors: Factors such as GDP growth rate and increased income levels have a strong correlation with electricity demand growth. Increased income levels of households directly impacts on comfort levels through increased energy expenditure for cooling and heating requirements [22,23].
iii. Subsidies: Subsidies for certain types of technologies such as solar PV (and other renewable technologies) play a vital role in ensuring the adoption of such technologies. Subsidy for certain energy resources (such as crude oil and natural gas) also determines to a large extent the kind of energy infrastructure we end up with [24,25].
iv. Structure of electricity demand: This includes demand level, peak load and demand variation, energy intensity, etc. Since electricity cannot be stored, it has to be produced and consumed simultaneously.
This means seasonal and instantaneous variations in energy demand has to be met. Indeed, systems need to be matched with demand in such a way that long term energy demand (over a long time period) and peak load (short term) demand are met [26].
v. Industry structure and other policy factors: Industry structure plays a vital role in energy infrastructure choices. A country/region with intensive industrialization drive will necessarily need to make energy decisions that support industrial growth. Other policy factors such as reaching certain emissions and energy e ciency targets could have signi cant impact on energy demand and supply [27].
vi. Potential for energy savings and demand side management (DSM): As many countries in Europe are gradually becoming less industrialized and moving towards a more service intensive economy, the need for greater energy savings and demand-side management becomes paramount. The offshoring of manufacturing processes necessitates a rethink in energy systems and use, particularly in embracing energy e ciency measures. Technologies that help save and optimize energy consumption can also have signi cant impact on energy demand [28,29].

Energy transition dynamics in Nigeria
Energy transition in Nigeria is a necessity, not only because it provides environmental gains but because Nigeria's current electricity infrastructure is mainly characterized by an unstable grid, obsolete systems infrastructure, and demanding logistics to get the lights on [30][31][32]. Addressing the challenge of energy infrastructure de cit and replacing obsolete infrastructure provides an opportunity for an energy transition that ensure the provision of more electrical power from cleaner energy sources in a sustainable way without detrimental impact on the environment [33,34]. Indeed, if energy transition is a necessity, in what ways have Nigeria tried to effect these changes in energy systems? What changes have occurred over time? Fig. 1 provides a panoramic overview of the various stages of the Nigerian energy transition.
In Fig. 1, the various eras of energy use is de ned following different time periods. Starting from the preindustrial (agricultural) era from the 1800s, we notice a gradual change in technology-in-use and social practices that became more energy intensive, thus requiring more energy dense sources which explain the changes in energy resource use [35,36]. Energy (re)sources have been a major (but not the only) driver and mediator in effecting energy transitions in Nigeria [37]. Changes in energy sources based on available energy resources have also impacted on technology shifts over time [38]. In this study, we further explore the factors that necessitated energy transition and energy systems change within the Nigerian context while particularly focusing on the role of resources and available technologies as later presented in Sect. 4.

Materials And Methods
This study explores dynamics of energy transition governance within the Nigerian electricity sector with the aim of drawing lessons that have impacted on energy transition and energy systems change. It is an explorative study of Nigeria's electricity sector, focusing on historical electricity policy and infrastructure decisions, the governance of those changes, and how they necessitated a transition in energy use.
In this study, archival documents of various institutions and other relevant literature were used for data collection using documentary literature research tools. Scott argues that documents are texts produced by an individual or group with the exclusive aim of addressing immediate practical needs [39]. They are written based on particular assumptions and with a clear purpose. In this study, data from primary and secondary sources in documentary archives and other published sources that links to the Nigerian historical energy infrastructure provisions were used for analysis in order to have a better understanding of the Nigerian energy (infrastructure) history.
The following steps were followed in analyzing archival documents/records used in this study [40,41]. Indeed, the aforementioned process guided the data analysis that addressed the rst sub-question.

Results
Following collection and analysis of data, the study reveals that three major factors characterized Nigeria's electricity sector that had a direct impact on Nigeria's energy transition and energy systems change. These  Some other power stations that came on stream are listed in Table 2, together with their capacity, location and institution responsible for its provision.

Direct government interventions (1940s -1970s)
The study reveals that government intervention in the provision of electricity infrastructure was evident through the establishment of institutions that were given the mandate to address a speci c challenge that served as a barrier to the diffusion, spread and expansion of new and existing electricity infrastructure to cater for the growing energy needs. Table 3 provides a summary of various government interventions in electricity infrastructure, institutions responsible and their central focus.   Table 4 shows the number of power station s in Nigeria as of 1952 and the institutions responsible for its provision. respectively of total electricity consumption as shown in Fig. 3.

Major changes in market rules (from 2005 and beyond)
The study revealed that major changes in market rules played an important role in the governance of energy transition in Nigeria. Some key events leading to changes in market rules in Nigeria's electricity sector that had some impact on Nigeria's energy transition are highlighted in Table 5.
The liberalization of the Nigerian electricity sector was a major reason for changes in market rules. This  Group argues that to achieve a sustainable energy future for all, there is a need to ensure universal energy access that focus on the poor which can be achieved more quickly through the rapid expansion of renewable energy [51].
Various technological interventions over time have impacted on energy systems change and energy transition. Electricity systems in many countries started off with the use of steam engines from the late 1800s to the early 1900s [37]. Further technological changes that saw the shift from one technology to another also occurred. The shift from steam engines [52] to diesel engines [53], thermal power plants [54], hydroelectric power [55] and the various forms of renewable technologies, including solar photovoltaic cells [56], concentrated solar plants [57], wind technology [58], etc., are evident of the role of various energy technology pathways in ensuring energy transition and energy systems change within the Nigerian context.
Social and societal (everyday) practices, which essentially consist of the way people habitually do things, have evolved over time [59]. Some everyday practices such as cooking, commuting, trading, entertainment, etc., have evolved over time such that they now require more energy than ever before for the actualization of those practices [60][61][62]. The fact that energy infrastructure provision has enabled some everyday practices to be performed in a manner that helps in satisfying the need for greater levels of comfort, cleanliness and convenience has increased the public value for energy [23,63]. Indeed, energy is that net currency that enables the actualization and entrenchment of new and existing practices that are becoming more energy intensive.
Available energy resource options have played (and will continue to play) a dominant role in energy choices and energy systems change. Most countries started off with electricity systems that depended on coal as the major fuel source. The discovery of other fuels such as crude oil and natural gas changed the energy landscape by enabling the introduction and provision of new power plants that depended on those fuel sources [64]. Competing interest:

List Of Abbreviations
The authors declare that they have no competing interest