The role of renewable energy in the energy–growth–emission nexus in the ASEAN region

Table 3 The empirical results for the unit-root tests based on Choi [45]

	Inverse Chi-squared	Inverse normal	Inverse logit t	Modified inverse Chi-squared
	P	Z	L*	Pm
The level
LnPCCO₂	10.50	1.00	1.07	− 0.97
LnPCGDPR	5.17	3.08	3.26	− 1.91
LnPCGDPR²	2.57	3.79	3.94	− 2.37
LnPOP^a	37.41***	− 2.81***	− 3.13***	− 3.78***
LnREC	17.89	0.19	0.38	0.33
LnEC	21.46	− 0.30	− 0.37	0.96
The first difference
∆PCCO₂	27.69**	− 2.43***	− 2.30**	2.07**
∆PCGDPR	27.52**	− 2.23**	− 2.16**	2.04**
∆PCGDPR²	29.31**	− 2.42***	− 2.37**	2.35***
∆POP^a	23.78*	− 1.56*	− 1.57*	− 1.37*
∆PCREC	44.52***	− 3.83***	− 4.07***	5.04***
∆PCEC	33.88***	− 2.67***	− 2.76***	3.16***

***, ** and * denote the rejection of containing unit roots at the significance level of 1, 5 and 10 per cent. The test includes an intercept and a trend
PCCO₂: per capita CO₂ emissions; PCGDPR: per capita real GDP; PCGDPR²: the square of per capita real GDP; POP: population; REC: renewable energy consumption; EC: energy consumption. “Ln” represents the logarithm

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